John Bruer Presentation to The Uses and Abuses of Biology: Neuroscience, Parenting and British Family Policy.

New Scientist January 11, 2014

Structure
• Early intervention before neuroscience (1960 – 1994)
• The allure of brain science (1994 – 2000)
• Translating neuroscience into policy (1998 – )
• Some issues and questions

Before neuroscience
Early intervention 1960 - 1990

“In this respect, the ‘cause’ – intervening in the early years to influence
‘parenting’– can be said to have manifestly established itself in policy
thinking before the ‘argument’ – neuroscientific evidence that the early
years are ‘critical’ – was made by policy-makers.”
The Uses and Abuses of Biology: Neuroscience, Parenting and Family Policy in Britain
A ‘Key Findings’ Report
Ellie Lee, Jan Macvarish, and Pam Lowe

This means that nearly half the preschool children
of poverty will get a head start on their future.
These children will receive preschool training to
prepare them for regular school in September.
They will get medical and dental attention that
they badly need, and parents will receive
counseling on improving the home environment.
Lyndon Baines Johnson, Rose Garden at the White House May 18, 1965

"There is considerable evidence that the early years of childhood are
the most critical point in the poverty cycle. During those years, the
creation of learning patterns, emotional development, and the
formation of individual expectations and aspirations take place at a
very rapid pace. For the child of poverty, there are clearly observable
deficiencies in these processes, which lay the foundation for a pattern
of failure, and thus a pattern of poverty throughout the child's entire
life."
Recommendations for a Head Start Program by Panel of Experts, Dr. Robert
Cooke, Chief Pediatrician, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Chair, February 16, 1965

The Evidence
“The overwhelming import of this work, which is the tremendous
changes that take place in the very early years of childhood and the --
at least as far as our present methods are concerned – smaller changes
that take place in later years. … We have come to the viewpoint
that, while much can be done for culturally deprived children at various
ages, by far the greatest effect can be produced in 1 to 2 years of
preschool experiences in the period of 3 to 5.”
Benjamin Bloom (1965), Congressional testimony on Aid to Elementary and Secondary Schools Act.

Early Intervention ≠ Inoculation
In the 1960s, a number of theorists suggested that the first years of life were of
extraordinary importance in remediating the academic disadvantages often observed
among poor and ethnic-minority children. Moreover, in some cases a more radical
suggestion was made: that disadvantaged children could possibly be "inoculated" against
their disadvantages by providing them with enrichment experiences in the first years of
life. It was implied that, like inoculations against infectious diseases, these enrichments
might provide long-lasting protection.
The results of the IHDP call into question the notion that providing enrichment
experiences in the first few years of life can protect children against biological
disadvantages over extended periods of time.
Brooks-Gunn et al. (1994), Early Intervention in Low-Birth-Weight Premature Infants Results Through Age 5
Years From the Infant Health and Development Program. JAMA.

Head Start Enters Adulthood (1990)
• Many educators assume that “quality preschool programs trigger a process that creates a lasting positive
effect on young lives. But is the evidence there to support these grand claims? Examination of the research
that has been done on early intervention programs since Head Start began in Lyndon Johnson's Great
Society suggests it is not.”
• “… dozens of studies have confirmed its finding that the intellectual effects of Head Start and similar efforts
are short-lived.” (fade out)
• “One rarely questioned assumption, says developmental psychologist Sandra Scarr of the University of
Virginia, is that "earlier is better" for getting children on the right track. There is quite a mystique in our
culture about the importance of early intervention,” Scarr says, yet "there is no evidence [for it] whatever.“”
• “ … the latest research on educational intervention suggests that such programs ought to be extended – to
the third grade, say – in order to have maximum impact.”
• “… the evidence remains shaky enough that few researchers are willing to offer overall policy conclusions.”
Constance Holden, Science, 23 March 1990, pp. 1400 - 02

The Allure of Neuroscience
Early intervention 1990 - 2000

• “How individuals function from the preschool years through
adolescence and even adulthood hinges, to a significant extent on
their experiences before the age of three.” (Starting Points, p.3)
• *Starting Points+ “focused on the strong evidence from research on
brain and behavior development, indicating long term effects of early
experience.” (Dr. David Hamburg, President, Carnegie Corporation)
• Discussion of brain science is confined to 2 ½ pages early in SP, added
in a later draft to present neuroscience relevant to early childhood (0
to 3 years) policy.

• By the age of two, toddlers’ brains are as active as
those of adults. By the age of three, the brains of
children are two and a half times more active than
the brains of adults—they stay that way throughout
the first decade of life.” (p. 21)
• 85 percent of a child’s brain development takes place
by the age of 5. Synapses are created with
astonishing speed in the first three years of life. For
the rest of the first decade, a child’s brain has twice
as many synapses as an adult’s brain. This means
that a child’s environment during the first five years
of life can greatly impact the brains’ ability to
develop.”

Why the first three years?
Attachment theory
• Theory about the dynamics of long-term relationships.
• Infants need to develop a relationship with a primary care giver, if social and emotional
development is to occur normally.
• Infant attachment categorized using Strange Situation Paradigm
• ~ 20 minute procedure
• Infant behavior when reunited with caregiver
• Correlations between attachment category and subsequent development/behaviors
extending into adulthood.
• [Good mothering+ “is almost useless if delayed until the age of 2 ½ years. In actual fact
this upper age limit for most babies is probably before 12 months.” (Bowlby, 1951)

“The Myth of the First Three Years”
 The first three years of life is a period of rapid synapse
formation.
 This is the critical period in brain development, during which
learning is easiest and most efficient.
 During the critical period, environmental enrichment has
profound, irreversible effects on the brain.

Countering the Myth
 The first three years of life is a period of rapid synapse
formation, but what these changes in brain structure imply for
changes in brain function and behavior is only asserted, not
demonstrated. (e.g. Huttenlocher, Chugani, Perry).
 Critical (better, sensitive periods) do occur in development but
they do not map neatly onto periods of rapid synapse
formation, nor is learning easiest and most efficient during this
period.
 In rodent studies, environmental enrichment increases the
number of synapses per neuron in visual areas, but this effect
occurs throughout the life span (of rodents).

• “ … the recent embracement of “research” documenting the critical nature of
the first 3 years of life for brain development although well intentioned greatly
exaggerates the actual scientific data on which policy recommendations have
been based and actually may undermine policies for vulnerable populations.”
(Cichetti & Toth, 2002)
• “There has been a misleading extrapolation of the findings on experience-
expectant development to the entirely different notion that higher quality
psychosocial experiences in the first 2 or 3 years of life will have a much greater
effect than similar experiences later, because the early experiences bring about
a lasting change in brain from people outside the field of neuroscience research)
are misleading and fallacious for several different reasons (Bruer, 1999).”
(Rutter, 2002)
• Books on early childhood development like The Myth and Scientist in the Crib
(Gopnik et al., 1999) take no account of the effects of early trauma, abuse, and
neglect on developing brain anatomy. (Schore, 2001)
Reactions from the Academic Community
http://blogs.kent.ac.uk/parentingculturestudies/files/2011/09/Special-briefing-on-The-Myth.pdf

Recognition of over generalization
• “ The success of preschool programs and critical periods for first language
learning have been used – and misused – to suggest that early experience
in general is critical to brain development. (C.A. Nelson, 1999)
• “One example was the over generalization of research on critical periods
that fueled the erroneous conclusion that human brain development is
effectively solidified by the age of 3 years, despite the fact that critical (vs.
sensitive periods) in the maturation of the human brain are the exception
rather than the rule.” (J. Shonkoff 2000)

A Sensitive Period for Attachment?
“Sensitive periods can be defined as unique episodes in development when
specific structures or functions be come especially susceptible to particular
experiences in ways that alter their future structure or function.”
“It is doubtful that early attachment security or insecurity influences
subsequent development in a manner resembling a sensitive period.”
“ … initial attachment provides a provisional foundation for the growth of later
psychosocial competencies in the years to come. Subsequent experiences may
build on, or alter, this initial developmental pathway.”
Ross Thompson (2001)

Brain Size versus Brain Development
… the human brain has developed to 85 per cent of
its potential at age three (and 90 per cent at age
four). (Allen and Duncan Smith 2008)
By the age of three, a baby’s brain is 80% formed and
his or her experiences before then shape the way the
brain has grown and developed. (Field, 2010)
A key finding is that babies are born with 25 per cent
of their brains developed, and there is then a rapid
period of development so that by the age of 3 their
brains are 80 per cent developed. (Allen,2011) • Fact: By age 3 the human brain has
reached around 85 per cent of its
mature weight (or volume).
1.25/1.5 X 100 = 83

Republished in New Scientist 11 January 2014 p.7, where vertical axis is labeled “Sensitivity to learning.”

Translating Neuroscience into
Policy
Early intervention 1998 - present

Economic, neurobiological, and behavioral perspectives on building
America’s future workforce
Eric I. Knudsen*†, James J. Heckman‡, Judy L. Cameron§, and Jack P. Shonkoff¶
• Central to these principles are the findings
• that early experiences have a uniquely powerful influence on the development
of cognitive and social skills and on brain architecture and neurochemistry,
• that both skill development and brain maturation are hierarchical processes in
which higher level functions depend on, and build on, lower level functions,
• and that the capacity for change in the foundations of human skill development
and neural circuitry is highest earlier in life and decreases over time.
• These findings lead to the conclusion that the most efficient strategy
for strengthening the future workforce, both economically and
neurobiologically, and improving its quality of life is to invest in the
environments of disadvantaged children during the early childhood
years.
PNAS July 5, 2006 vol. 103 no. 27 10155–10162

Sensitive Periods in the Development of the
Brain and Behavior
Eric I. Knudsen (2004) JCNS 16(8):1412 - 1425
• A sensitive period is a time during development during which the
effect of experience on the brain is particularly strong.
• A sensitive period during which experience is essential for normal
development and alters performance permanently is a critical period.
• “Although sensitive periods are reflected in behavior, they are actually
a property of neural circuits.”
• Behavioral analysis tends to underestimate the occurrence of critical
periods.

Child Development, January/February 2011, Volume 82, Number 1, Pages 17–32
Science Does Not Speak for Itself: Translating Child Development Research
for the Public and Its Policymakers
Jack P. Shonkoff Susan Nall Bales
Harvard University FrameWorks Institute
“Science has an important role to play in advising policymakers on crafting effective responses
to social problems that affect the development of children. This article describes lessons
learned from a multiyear, working collaboration among neuroscientists, developmental
psychologists, pediatricians, economists, and communications researchers who are engaged in
the iterative construction of a core story of development, using simplifying models
(i.e., metaphors) such as ‘‘brain architecture,’’ ‘‘toxic stress,’’ and ‘‘serve and return’’ to explain
complex scientific concepts to nonscientists.”*
*My italics.

FrameWorks Institute
• “The mission of the FrameWorks Institute is to advance the
nonprofit sector's communications capacity by
identifying, translating and modeling relevant scholarly research
for framing the public discourse about social problems.”
• “Understanding which frames serve to advance which policy
options with which groups becomes central to any movement’s
strategy. The literature of social movements suggests that the
prudent choice of frames, and the ability to effectively contest the
opposition’s frames, lie at the heart of successful policy advocacy.”
http://www.frameworksinstitute.org/mission.html

FrameWorks Original Simplifying Models
In the course of harvesting research findings from FrameWorks’ work with the
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (now at Harvard
University’s Center on the Developing Child), we recommended a set of
“Simplifying Models” to help plug these cognitive holes:
• Brain Architecture as a way to capture the material nature of the
developmental foundation;
• Interaction, as a way to elevate the dynamic process between child
and environment; and
• Stress-Related Chemicals in the Brain, as a way to make vivid the
damaging effects of exposure to stress.

Since this research was conducted for PCA America in 2003, FrameWorks has tested
all three Simplifying Models in both qualitative and quantitative research and has
improved the latter two models:
Interaction has been updated to Serve and Return, in which the
interactive nature of the child and his environment is equated with a
game of tennis.
Stress-Related Chemicals in the Brain has been expanded to
differentiate between positive, tolerable and toxic stress in order to help
people understand the buffering effects of caring adults and the
deleterious effects of unrelieved exposure.
http://www.frameworksinstitute.org/mission.html
FrameWorks Revised Simplifying Models

Science of Early Childhood Development Parenting Matters (2011), C. Paterson, Centre:Forum
Both brain architecture and developing abilities are built “from
the bottom up,” with simple circuits and skills providing the
scaffolding for more advanced circuits and skills over time.
Brain architecture and developing abilities are built from the
bottom up over time.
The interactive influences of genes and experience literally shape
the architecture of the developing brain, and the active ingredient
is the “serve and return” nature of children’s engagement in
relationships with their parents and other caregivers in their
family or community.
The interactive influences of genes and experience shape the
developing brain. (serve and return)
Toxic stress in early childhood is associated with persistent effects
on the nervous system and stress hormone systems that can
damage developing brain architecture and lead to lifelong
problems in learning, behavior, and both physical and mental
health.
Toxic stress damages developing brain architecture.
Plasticity is maximal in early childhood and decreases with age The brain’s capacity for change decreases with age.

Criticisms Raised in “The Myth” Still Apply
• Equivocation on “early intervention”
• Examples Perry Preschool Project and Abcedarian Project
• Interventions prior to formal schooling enhance benefits of school attendance
• Interventions are “early” because schooling starts early
• Not evidence for biologically privileged sensitive period
• Higher-level functions build on lower-level functions
• Higher-level = later in development, lower-level = earlier?
• “Skills beget skills”, but (most) skill learning is not developmentally constrained
• Speed and ease of learning depends on prior experience, not necessarily early
experience
• Relations between synaptogenesis, pruning, and skill development remains
unclear

Experience-expectant vs Experience-dependent
• Two kinds of brain plasticity (Greenough, Black & Wallace, 1987)
• Experience-expectant
• Limited to developing skills and neural systems that are characteristic of a species (E.g.
vision, audition, first-language learning)
• Stimulation required for normal development are reliably present in any typical species
environment
• Subject to critical or sensitive period constraints (loss of pre-existing synapses?)
• Experience-dependent
• Driven by experiences unique to the individuals and their particular physical, social and
cultural environment
• Allows us to learn from personal experience and store information to guide behavior
• Not subject to critical or sensitive period constraints (formation of new synapses?)

37
MYTH - II
There is only one sort of biological effect
Wrong because there are at least 3 different varieties
i. Experience-expectant effects
(cf Hubel & Weisel expts on binocular vision & development of the
visual cortex)
Termed 'expectant' because in all ordinary circumstances the
necessary experiences will always be available
ii. Experience-adaptive effects
(cf Barker hypothesis re long-term effects of
restrictions in early growth)
Unlike experience-expectant effects, these concern variations
within, as well as outside, the normal range. Termed „adaptive‟
because the body is adapting to the nature of early experience
iii. Experience-dependent effects
(cf the adult experience examples)
Unlike the first two varieties, these are not restricted to any kind
of sensitive period restrictions
epge.fgv.br/childhood/presentations/MICHAEL%20RUTTER.ppt

Nature, Nurture, and Development: From Evangelism
through Science toward Policy and Practice
Michael Rutter, Child Development, January/February 2002, Volume 73, Number 1, Pages
1–21
“The last decade or so has been accompanied by a different type of
evangelism—namely, claims on the extent to which early experiences
determine brain development (see, e.g., Kotulak, 1996). There has
been a misleading extrapolation of the findings on experience-
expectant development to the entirely different notion that higher
quality psychosocial experiences in the first 2 or 3 years of life will have
a much greater effect than similar experiences later on, because the
early experiences bring about a lasting change in brain structure.”

Issues and Questions
Early intervention 2014

Neuroscientists also point to the importance of early parenting in the development of the infant brain.35 The
prefrontal cortex, and specifically the orbitofrontal cortex, in the brain is thought to be especially important in
emotional regulation, processing and expressing feelings, reading social cues and behaviour, and working
memory, attention and decision making. Almost all of this area develops after birth. In the first year, a baby’s
brain doubles in weight. Between six and twelve months in particular, there is a burst of brain development
when attachment bonds are made.36 Research suggests that ‘toxic’ levels of stress – defined as ‘prolonged
activation of stress response in the absence of protective relationships’ – can affect the infant’s developing
brain.37 While the first years of brain development are not make-or-break, they have been found to affect the
child’s ongoing brain development in important ways, shaping both their social-emotional, and cognitive
development

The foundations of brain architecture, and
subsequent lifelong developmental potential, are
laid down in a child’s early years through a process
that is exquisitely sensitive to external
influence. Early experiences in the home, in other
care settings, and in communities interact
with genes to shape the developing nature and
quality of the brain’s architecture. The
growth and then environmentally based pruning of
neuronal systems in the first years
support a range of early skills, including cognitive
(early language, literacy, math), social
(theory of
mind, empathy, prosocial), persistence, attention, a
nd self-regulation and
executive function skills (the voluntary control of
attention and behavior).2 Later skills—
in schooling and employment—build cumulatively
upon these early skills. Therefore
investment in early learning and development is
more efficient and can generate more
benefits than costs relative to investment later in
the life cycle.3

Neuroscience as Background, Behavior as Ground
• Both documents cite the neuroscience of child development in their
opening paragraphs
• No mention or citation of brain science thereafter
• Policy debate on these issues will be about the validity and
generalization of behavioral research – notoriously difficult
• Neuroscience can eventually contribute only after behaviors and
effects of interventions on behaviors are well-defined.
• Neuroscience cannot yield reductive explanations of “non-
phenomena.”
• Neuroscience as background has rhetorical value only.

Questions
• Do we persist in extrapolating findings about experience-expectant
plasticity to areas where these results are inapplicable?
• Once we leave the realm of experience-expectant plasticity, what is
normal?
• Are we translating sound science to the public?
• Is framing an appropriate mechanism by which to execute this translation?
• What is the appropriate role of scientists, scholars, and academic
institutions in this translation process?
• If, and when, do the roles of scholar-scientist and advocate conflict?
• What can be done to better integrate development psychology (study of
normal development) with psychiatry (causes of psychopathology)?

The Santiago Declaration
www.SantiagoDeclaration.org
We also recognize the limitations of our own scientific disciplines. Our research can
provide guides in designing the most efficient means to a policy ends, but cannot
dictate those ends, which must arise out of political debate and social consensus.
Our research can also be abused in attempts to rationalize pre-conceived policies
and popular notions about early childhood, putting science to a rhetorical and
selective, rather than rational use.

New Scientist January 11, 2014
Too late …
The old man just doesn’t get it.

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
%MaxSynDensity
Birth 1 yr. 11 yrs.
From P. Huttenlocher 1987
Synaptic growth and pruning (visual and frontal cortex)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 10 100
%MaxSynDen/LCRMGlc
Log Years
Huttenlocher/Chugani Data: Frontal Cortex
MFG Syn Den
Frontal LCMRGlc

FIGURE 9 Examples of sensitive periods across four aspects of vision. Gray bars represent periods
of normal development, and black bars represent sensitive periods for damage. Ages indicating the

Oddity Task: Learning Curve
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Age (yrs)
%MaxGlucoseUptake
0
20
40
60
80
100
%MaxTrialstoCriterion
% Max Glucose Uptake
% Max.Trials to Criterion

Critical periods
Based on Hubel and Wiesel (1970)
Normal Adults Deprivation During
Critical Period
Deprivation After
Critical Period

Enriched environments
Turner and Greenough (1985)
… a careful look does not support a selective focus on the 0-3 age range. … The work I
and others have conducted on the effects of housing animals in physically and socially
complex environments similarly emphasizes the continuing plasticity of the brain in
later development and adulthood.
William Greenough, APA Monitor, 1997

• Fariña told committee members, “significant growth in
speech, language, and brain development occurs before
kindergarten.”

Huttenlocher/Chugani Data: Frontal Cortex
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Years
%MaxSynDen/LCRMGlc
MFG Syn Den
Frontal LCMRGlc

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
%MaxSynDensity
Birth 1 yr. 11 yrs.
Redrawn from P. Huttenlocher 1987
Synaptic growth and pruning (visual cortex)
Critical periods
Enriched environments
Based on Hubel and Wiesel (1970)
Turner and Greenough (1985)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
%MaxSynDensity
Birth 1 yr. 11 yrs.

Workers who have studied the development of the brain have found
that to achieve the precision of the adult pattern, neural function is
necessary: the brain must be stimulated in some fashion.
Indeed, several observations during the last few decades have shown
that babies who spent most of their first year of life lying their cribs
develop abnormally slowly.
Based in part on such observations, some people favor
enriched environments for young children, in the hopes of
enhancing development. Yet current studies provide no clear
evidence that such extra stimulation is helpful.
As a first step toward understanding the process, neurobiologists
have focused on the development of the visual system … .
Another physiological fact makes the visual system a productive
object of study: its neurons are essentially the same as neurons
in other parts of the brain.
Carla Shatz: The Developing Brain (1992)

Fade Out
"Head Start has benefits for both 3-year-olds and 4-year-olds in the
cognitive, health, and parenting domains, and for 3-year-olds in the
social-emotional domain. However, the benefits of access to Head Start
at age four are largely absent by 1st grade for the program population
as a whole. For 3-year-olds, there are few sustained benefits, although
access to the program may lead to improved parent-child relationships
through 1st grade, a potentially important finding for children's longer
term development.“
Weigel, Margaret (August 11, 2011). "Head Start Impact: Department of Health and Human Services
Report".

Brain-based Explanation for Fade-Out
Children enter Head Start at age 3, after the critical first three years of
brain development are over. Thus, the Head Start experiences occur
too late in life to fundamentally and permanently rewire the children’s
brains.

1st Wave (1994 – 2000): Strength of Claims
• Strongly deterministic
• “By the age of ten, your brain is cooked.” (Reiner)
• Early experiences are so powerful …"they can completely change the way a person turns out.” (H.
Chugani)
• … "critical periods … are windows of opportunity that nature flings open, starting before
birth, and then slams shut, one by one, with every additional candle on the child's birthday cake.”
(Begley)
• Critical periods in development
• Narrow and rigid interpretation of critical periods
• Closed by endogenous causes
• Birth to three is the critical period for brain development

2nd Wave (2000 – 2011): Sources

First and 2nd wave UK documents

3rd Wave (2010 – ) : Strength of Claims
• Guarded Determinism
• “Although ‘windows of opportunity’ for language and skill development and behavioural
adaptation remain open for many years, trying to change behaviour or build new skills on a
foundation of brain circuits that were not wired properly when they were first formed is
much harder and requires more intensive effort.”
• The brain’s capacity for change decreases with age.
• Sensitive periods
• The term ‘critical period’ does not appear.
• “Brain architecture is built over a succession of ‘sensitive periods’, each of which is
associated with the formation of specific circuits that are associated with specific abilities.”

3rd Wave (2010 – ): Power of metaphor
 Relies on neuroscience to provide a materialistic/mechanistic explanation of
learning, development, and mental illness.
 However, language has become figurative: Metaphors are used to explain the
implications of neuroscience to a lay audience.
 Brain architecture
 Serve and return
 Toxic stress
 Where did this metaphoric language come from?

A Lingering Neuromyth?
The infant brain has more brain cells (neurons) and more connections
(synapses) than the adult brain, and this means that it is more
‘plastic’, that is, more responsive to experience, including formal and
informal instruction, than later on. As a consequence, learning new
material appears to be easier earlier than later.
-- Butterworth and Varma (2013) in Educational Neuroscience

Do children learn more quickly and efficiently
during the period of high synaptic density than
after synaptic pruning occurs?
Everything or certain kinds of things?
Are the certain kinds of learning relevant to
education, remediation, therapy?

Also New Contributions
from Academic scientists

Summary and Issues
• Strength of claims – from hard determinism to softer determinism
• Language – literal but over-simplified to models and metaphors
• Persistent themes
• Materialist, mechanistic explanations throughout
• Affinity for attachment theory and purported neural underpinnings
• Underlying neuroscience carefully chosen
• Not much advance in the neuroscientific bases for claims.

Summary and Issues
• Source
• 1st wave:
• from advocates outside the academy (with active assistance of some academic
scientists)
• Advocates oversimplifying science
• 3rd wave:
• from academy (with active assistance of experts on advocacy)
• Scientists oversimplifying science

Questions
• To what extent is the brain early childhood campaign like and unlike
other public health campaigns? (smoking, avian
flu, immunization, breast feeding)?
• Depth and strength of underlying science
• Link between the science and proposed policy
• Extent of social agreement on the policy end apart from the science
• Is translation of science into policy an important academic endeavor in
its own right?
• Is “framing” an appropriate way to translate science for nonscientists?
• When do the roles of scientist-scholar and advocate conflict?
• If so what are the academic community’s responsibilities in conducting
and reviewing such translations?

John Bruer Presentation to The Uses and Abuses of Biology: Neuroscience, Parenting and British Family Policy.

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to John Bruer Presentation to The Uses and Abuses of Biology: Neuroscience, Parenting and British Family Policy.

Similar to John Bruer Presentation to The Uses and Abuses of Biology: Neuroscience, Parenting and British Family Policy. (16)

More from ParentingCultureStudies

More from ParentingCultureStudies (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (10)

John Bruer Presentation to The Uses and Abuses of Biology: Neuroscience, Parenting and British Family Policy.

Editor's Notes