Web 20 (Social Media) Policies in Higher Education

Social Media Tools and the Policies Associated with Them

Last update: 11.05.09
Anne Arendt, Utah Valley University

Table of Contents

• Situational Analysis
• Freedom of Speech/Expression
• Copyright and Intellectual Property
• Creative Commons and the Public Domain
• Privacy, Data Protection and Freedom of Information
• Accessibility
• Liability
• Reliance on an Externally Provided Service
• Overview of Social Media Tools and Their Related Policies
• Social Bookmarking (Folksonomy)
• Social Networking & Profiles
• Blogs
• Open Educational Resources
• Open Access Journals & Publications
• Collaborative & Interactive Environments, including Wikis
• Document Sharing
• Microblogging
• Social Media in Education
• Risk Analysis
• Sample Cases
• Conclusion and Summary

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SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS

Let’s consider how long social media resources have been around. The timeline is striking, for example:
Wikipedia (online encyclopaedia) 2001; del.icio.us (social bookmarking) 2003; MySpace 2003 (social
networking); Facebook (social networking) 2004; Flikr (social media) 2004; Bebo (social networking)
2005; and YouTube (social media) 2005 (Higher Education Academy and the Joint Information Systems
Committee).

Now let us consider how these new tools are being used by younger generations. Consider these
numbers for 11-15 year olds in the United Kingdom:
• Having at least one social networking site 75%
• Using email and instant messaging 90%
• Playing online multiplayer games 60%
• Owning an MP3 player 80%
• Owning a mobile phone with camera 85% (Higher Education Academy and the Joint Information
Systems Committee).

Based on a PEW study in the United States, “Forty-seven percent of adult U.S. Internet users use online
social networks, and 19 percent now use Twitter or other status update services, according to research
by the Pew Internet and American Life Project.” It continues, “The survey also highlighted the fact that
use of Twitter and similar services is more popular among younger users, with 37 percent of 18-24 year
olds and 31 percent of 25-34 year olds claiming to use it. This compares with 19 percent of 35-44 year
olds, and 10 percent of 45-64 year olds” (Marshall, 2009).

As we look at how we as educators are to become involved in these new environments it may serve us
well to consider the vast array of environments, norms, expectations, and situations that exist. A good
place to start looking is at some general categorizations of ‘space’ in the Internet world. In the world of the
Web there are different senses of boundary based on the perceived type of space. These spaces,
according to Locke, might include:

• Secret/private/personal space: eg Short Message Service (SMS); Instant Message (IM)
• group space: eg Bebo, Facebook
• publishing space: eg blogs, wikis, YouTube
• performance space: eg Second Life, World of Warcraft
• participation space: eg meetings, markets, events
• watching space: eg lectures (2007)

As Higher Education Academy and the Joint Information Systems Committee notes, “Young people are
defensive about the first two, essentially the ‘me’ and ‘we’ spaces, as opposed to the others, the ‘see’
spaces. Hence, their discomfort with staff-initiated discussion groups in social networking space when
they are at ease with those they set up themselves for study-related purposes. We have been told that
there is considerable untapped potential for exploitation of this, effectively a third space within group
space – somewhere between pure study/work and pure social – to support learning and teaching (2009)

Higher Education Academy and the Joint Information Systems Committee continues, “The consequences
of this generation’s experience have become increasingly apparent over time. In general, they include a
strong sense of a community linked in its own virtual spaces of blogs and social networking and gaming
sites; a similarly strong sense of group identity; and a disposition to share and to participate. They also
include impatience – a preference for instant answers; a downgrading of text in favour of image; and a
casual approach to evaluating information and attributing it, and also to copyright and legal constraints”
(Higher Education Academy and the Joint Information Systems Committee, 2009). As this younger
generation joins higher education, the environment within which we work will continue to transition—not
just in the tools available but in how we choose to use them. Therefore, we need to start addressing how
we will prepare for these changes. “The generation born in the 1990s entered a world of high
technological sophistication and has grown up accommodating and influencing yet further advances on
the ICT [Information and Communication Technologies] front in particular. Generally speaking, its

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members are familiar and entirely at ease with the design of these technologies, unafraid of
experimenting with them, and take for granted and get on with doing all that they allow – talking,
messaging, playing online games, sharing images, finding things out – often simultaneously. Moreover,
most of their learning about it, and how to use it, comes from their peers. ICT, and the Social Web
especially, is their medium and their metier. It is integral to the world they know and that world is the only
one they have known. There is no going back from this position. Indeed, it can only become more firmly
established as the norm by subsequent generations, and not just in the UK but worldwide” (Higher
Education Academy and the Joint Information Systems Committee, 2009).

When it comes to social media use in higher education to date, use as well as surrounding policies,
procedures, and expectations, are limited. Generally speaking, educational institutions do not move as
quickly as the changes around them are taking place. “Use of Web 2.0 technologies in learning and
teaching emerges as considerable but patchy, driven for the most part by the professional interest and/or
enthusiasm of individuals or small groups of staff. This situation is replicated in other spheres of university
business: administration, student support, and advertising and marketing” (Higher Education Academy
and the Joint Information Systems Committee).

SCENARIO

Based on an analysis of 26 case studies where social software tools were employed in educational
institutions in the UK (of which the full results can be found at http://tinyurl.com/5a8zu3):

There was some concern in several institutions among students and educators that the use of social
software blurred boundaries between personal and academic life. For example, in [BCU2], the students
admitted that the Facebook group set up for pre-induction was useful but they did not want university
interactions in Facebook to continue once they had joined the university. In contrast, in [ARU] and in
[LSBU], the educators were allowed access to their students’ profiles on Facebook but in [UM], some
students were hesitant about interacting with their educators on Facebook as they perceived Facebook
as a social space rather than an academic space.

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FREEDOM OF SPEECH/EXPRESSION

Freedom of speech (expression) in the United States is protected by the First Amendment to the United
States Constitution and by many state constitutions and state and federal laws.

FIRST AMENDMENT TO THE U.S. CONSTITUTION (RELIGION AND EXPRESSION)

The First Amendment to the United States Constitution is part of the Bill of Rights and was adopted in
1791. It provides that:
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people
peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
It should be noted that court decisions have expanded this concept to include not just verbal
communication but also non-verbal expressions such as wearing a symbol, dance movements, or silent
vigils.

UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

The right to freedom of speech is recognized as a human right under Article 19 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and recognized in international human rights law in the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).

As stated by the Global Network Initiative:
Freedom of Expression: Freedom of expression is defined using Article 19 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights (ICCPR):
UDHR: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes
freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information
and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
ICCPR: 1. Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference. 2.
Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to
seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either
orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice. 3.
The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special
duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these
shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary: (a) For respect of the rights
or reputations of others; (b) For the protection of national security or of public order (ordre
public), or of public health or morals.

The Global Network Initiative notes:

“Freedom of opinion and expression is a human right and guarantor of human dignity.
The right to freedom of opinion and expression includes the freedom to hold opinions
without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any
media and regardless of frontiers.

Freedom of opinion and expression supports an informed citizenry and is vital to ensuring
public and private sector accountability. Broad public access to information and the
freedom to create and communicate ideas are critical to the advancement of knowledge,
economic opportunity and human potential.

The right to freedom of expression should not be restricted by governments, except in
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narrowly defined circumstances based on internationally recognized laws or standards.
These restrictions should be consistent with international human rights laws and
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standards, the rule of law and be necessary and proportionate for the relevant purpose.
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Participating companies will respect and protect the freedom of expression of their users
by seeking to avoid or minimize the impact of government restrictions on freedom of
expression, including restrictions on the information available to users and the
opportunities for users to create and communicate ideas and information, regardless of
frontiers or media of communication” (2009).

SCENARIOS

If only things were so simple. Even without the addition of the Internet and social media sites into the
educational arena, issues abounded. Consider this:

Joseph Frederick was 18 when he unveiled the 14-foot paper sign on a public sidewalk outside his
Juneau, Alaska, high school in 2002. Frederick sued, claiming his constitutional rights to free speech
were violated.

Morse v. Frederick, 551 U.S. 393 (2007)

Joseph Frederick was suspended in 2002 for displaying a sign saying "Bong Hits 4 Jesus" at a rally for
the Olympic torch relay. The rally was an off-campus event not sponsored by Frederick's school. A
federal appeals court agreed with the ACLU that the school had violated Frederick's right to free speech.
The Supreme Court heard the case during the 2006 term and ruled that Alaska public school officials did
not violate Joseph Frederick's free speech rights by punishing him.

The Supreme Court decision did not resolve all of the issues in the case. Frederick claimed his speech
rights under the Constitution of Alaska were violated, and the issue was argued in front of the Court of
Appeals in September 2008. However, the school district agreed to settle out of court before the judges
reached a decision. In November 2008, the district paid Frederick $45,000 to settle all remaining claims
and agreed to hire a neutral constitutional law expert to lead a forum on student speech at Juneau-
Douglas High School by the end of the school year.

In this and similar situations one may want to assess the roles substantial disruption (or threat of
disruption), community standards, and educational mission play.

Questions to ask yourself:
• Would a similar situation on the Internet have the same impact? Why or why not?
• What about the Tinker v DesMoines case where the Supreme Court said, “young people do not
"shed their constitutional rights at the schoolhouse gate," ruling that students have the right to
free speech at school, as long as their speech does not disrupt the educational process.
• What does right to free speech mean?

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GENERAL PERMISSIONS

As JISC Legal notes, “the variables which are likely to require consideration by the institution in drawing
up its [Web 2.0] policy are:
- Whether the institution, in general terms, supports the use of Web 2.0 technologies
- Whether permission extends to both internally and externally hosted Web 2.0 services
- Whether permission extends to all areas of business (teaching, research and administration) and
to all members of staff
- What formalities will be imposed by your institution on the use of Web 2.0 technologies (JISC
Legal, 2008a)

POSSIBLE POLICY STATEMENTS COULD BE:

After due consideration of the costs, risks and benefits, [the Institution] has decided that Web 2.0
technologies must only be used with the prior written permission of [job title].

[The institution] only permits the use of Web 2.0 technologies which are hosted and controlled by
the institution. Externally hosted Web 2.0 technologies must only be used with the prior written
permission of [job title].

[The institution] has decided that appropriate and compliant use of Web 2.0 technologies,
whether hosted internally or externally, is encouraged. However, those organiZing the use
of such technologies are responsible for ensuring use in compliance with the law, and
with the issues covered by this policy.

[The institution] wishes to encourage the use of appropriate Web 2.0 technologies as part of its
teaching and learning provision. To this end, [module leaders] may, through the curriculum
development process, adopt the use of such technologies whilst ensuring that use is compliant
with the law and the institution’s acceptable use policies. In the fields of research and
administration, Web 2.0 technologies must only be used with the prior written permission of [job
title].

(JISC Legal, 2008a)

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COPYRIGHT AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Generally speaking, we have well established rules and norms for individual, joint, institutional and vendor
IP ownership. We also have reasonably well established academic norms for attribution. However, the
devil is in the details (Cate, 2009). We can now distribute rights almost any way we want to distribute
them. Copyright and intellectual property policy and enforcement includes a number of areas such as
patents, trademarks, trade secrets, right of publicity, and copyrights.

As the United State Copyright Office states:

Copyright is a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17, U. S. Code) to the
authors of “original works of authorship,” including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and certain
other intellectual works. This protection is available to both published and unpublished works. Section
106 of the 1976 Copyright Act generally gives the owner of copyright the exclusive right to do and to
authorize others to do the following:

• To reproduce the work in copies or phonorecords;
• To prepare derivative works based upon the work;
• To distribute copies or phonorecords of the work to the public by sale or other transfer of
ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending;
• To perform the work publicly, in the case of literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic
works, pantomimes, and motion pictures and other audiovisual works;
• To display the work publicly, in the case of literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic
works, pantomimes, and pictorial, graphic, or sculptural works, including the individual
images of a motion picture or other audiovisual work; and
• In the case of sound recordings,* to perform the work publicly by means of a digital audio
transmission.

In addition, certain authors of works of visual art have the rights of attribution and integrity as
described in section 106A of the 1976 Copyright Act. For further information, see Circular 40,
Copyright Registration for Works of the Visual Arts.

It is illegal for anyone to violate any of the rights provided by the copyright law to the owner of
copyright. These rights, however, are not unlimited in scope. Sections 107 through 121 of the 1976
Copyright Act establish limitations on these rights. In some cases, these limitations are specified
exemptions from copyright liability. One major limitation is the doctrine of “fair use,” which is given a
statutory basis in section 107 of the 1976 Copyright Act. In other instances, the limitation takes the
form of a “compulsory license” under which certain limited uses of copyrighted works are permitted
upon payment of specified royalties and compliance with statutory conditions.” (United States
Copyright Office).

Learn more about copyright basics at http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ1.pdf

FAIR USE

As noted by the U.S. Copyright notice, fair use is define as follows:

The doctrine of fair use has developed through a substantial number of court decisions over the
years and has been codified in section 107 of the copyright law.

Section 107 contains a list of the various purposes for which the reproduction of a particular work
may be considered fair, such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and
research. Section 107 also sets out four factors to be considered in determining whether or not a
particular use is fair:

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1. The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of commercial
nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes
2. The nature of the copyrighted work
3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a
whole
4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of, the copyrighted work

The distinction between fair use and infringement may be unclear and not easily defined. There is
no specific number of words, lines, or notes that may safely be taken without permission.

Acknowledging the source of the copyrighted material does not substitute for obtaining
permission.

COPYRIGHT IN EDUCATION

Copyright law provides educators with a separate set of rights in addition to fair use, to display (show)
and perform (show or play) others' works in the classroom. These rights are in Section 110(1) of the
Copyright Act and apply to any work, regardless of the medium:
§ 110. Limitations on exclusive rights: Exemption of certain performances and displays
Notwithstanding the provisions of section 106, the following are not infringements of copyright:
(1) performance or display of a work by instructors or pupils in the course of face-to-face teaching
activities of a nonprofit educational institution, in a classroom or similar place devoted to
instruction, unless, in the case of a motion picture or other audiovisual work, the performance, or
the display of individual images, is given by means of a copy that was not lawfully made under
this title, and that the person responsible for the performance knew or had reason to believe was
not lawfully made;

TEACH ACT

Signed by President Bush on November 2, 2002, the Technology, Education, and Copyright
Harmonization (TEACH) Act "facilitates and enables the performance and display of copyrighted
materials for distance education by accredited, non-profit educational institutions (and some government
entities) that meet the TEACH Act’s qualifying requirements. Its primary purpose is to balance the needs
of distance learners and educators with the rights of copyright holders. The TEACH Act applies to
distance education that includes the participation of any enrolled student, on or off campus" (Copyright
Clearance Center).

RIGHT OF PUBLICITY

A state-set rule regarding the right to control the commercial use of one’s identity. It generally includes
name, image and likeness; however, it varies from state to state. Right of publicity is part of the
intellectual property family. Currently, Utah is one of nineteen states that recognize the Right of Publicity
via statutes (Right of Publicity). In Utah it specifically related to newspapers and radio broadcasting.
These policies leave much grey area when it comes to Web 2.0 and social media technologies;
particularly when these technologies are outside of a traditional or online classroom setting.

NO SINGLE OWNER

Increasingly on the Internet information and resources are becoming shared resources were there are no
single owners or authors of intellectual property. As Bruwelheide notes, “in today’s environment,
ownership may be shared with several individuals or organizations as new technology encourages
development of multimedia products using a variety of formats and pieces which may involve multiple
layers of copyrighted materials” (1999).

ANTI-CIRCUMVENTION

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Anti-circumvention laws prohibit the circumvention of technological barriers for using a digital resources in
certain ways which the rights holders do not wish to allow.

WIPO COPYRIGHT TREATY

The World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty
(http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wct/trtdocs_wo033.html), abbreviated as the WIPO Copyright Treaty, is
an international treaty on copyright law adopted by the member states of the World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO) in 1996. The United States entered into the force in 2002. The WIPO Copyright
Treaty is implemented in United States law by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act or DMCA (Wikipedia,
2009b).

DIGITAL MILLIENNIUM COPYRIGHT ACT

The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) is a United States copyright law that implements two 1996
treaties of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). It criminalizes production and
dissemination of technology, devices, or services intended to circumvent measures (commonly known as
digital rights management or DRM) that control access to copyrighted works. It also criminalizes the act of
circumventing an access control, whether or not there is actual infringement of copyright itself. In addition,
the DMCA heightens the penalties for copyright infringement on the Internet. Passed on October 12, 1998
by a unanimous vote in the United States Senate and signed into law by President Bill Clinton on October
28, 1998, the DMCA amended Title 17 of the United States Code to extend the reach of copyright, while
limiting the liability of the providers of on-line services for copyright infringement by their users (Wikipedia,
2009a).

All of the above policies and more play a role in policy decision-making both in the Web environment and
elsewhere. “With increasing awareness of the value of creativity, innovation and invention, the issues of
ownership and protection of intellectual property rights (IPR) in relation to Web 2.0 are important. In
addition, institutions must be aware of the legal risks inherent in both infringement of copyright and
secondary infringement of copyright” (JISC Legal, 2008a)


[The institution] values its intellectual property. It does not therefore allow the use of Web 2.0
technologies which make IPR claims incompatible with the institution’s IPR policy.

Web 2.0 technology organizers must remind users prior to the use of that technology of
their obligations in relation to the clearance of IPR-protected material.

Web 2.0 technology organizers must consider the risk of the release of confidential information
relating to a potential patent application prior to the use of such technology.

Due to the risks of patent-relevant information being released into the public domain
inadvertently, [the institution] does not permit the use of Web 2.0 technologies for research
collaboration, unless the prior written permission of [job title] has been obtained.
(JISC Legal, 2008a)

Bruwelheide offers some suggestions as well regarding intellectual property rights as they relate to faculty
members:
Option set one assumes that faculty members are to be considered authors of their work
produced while employed at a University:
- Option 1.1: Faculty member authors a work but assigns ownership to the University
- Option 1.2: Faculty member authors a work with a non-exclusive license to the University
Option set two assumes a work-for-hire interpretation when faculty are employed by a University
where authorship does not reside with the faculty member:
- Option 2.1: University as the author with a non-exclusive license to the faculty member

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- Option 2.2: University as the author but assigns rights to the faculty member
Option set three applies if faculty creators are treated as independent contractors on a project:
- Option 3.1: University as author but assigns rights or license to the faculty member
- Option 3.2: Faculty as author who then assigns rights or license to the University (1999)

SCENARIOS


In [SC], students were uncomfortable about uploading on Flickr the photographs they were taking on the
course as they felt that they had no control about who was looking at the photographs and using them.
The concern about sharing resources was raised particularly where students were asked to share
reflections with a group of people who were potentially going to comment on what had been written;
commenting on others’ reflections was also considered uncomfortable by the students [UL]. Students
were initially hesitant to share their bookmarks [OU4] as they were concerned about ‘giving away’ what
they had searched. Some of the students added resources in the social bookmarking site as anonymous
users though several of them then identified their contributions in the tutorials [SU].

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CREATIVE COMMONS AND THE PUBLIC DOMAIN

Tools that release or selectively release copyright are gaining a foothold. One example of this is the
Creative Commons. Before we start, let’s remind ourselves what attribution is. It is the ascribing of a work
(as of literature or art) to a particular author or artist (Merriam-Webster). Now, let’s consider items that
are either in the public domain or have been partially copyright-released.

CREATIVE COMMONS

Larry Lessig of Stanford is pursuing something called the Creative Commons which frees materials from
automatically applied copyright restrictions by providing free, easy-to-use, flexible licenses for creators to
place on their digital materials that permit the originator to grant rights as they see fit (Fitzergerald, 2007;
Smith & Casserly, 2006). As the Creative Commons Website located at http://creativecommons.org/
noted, “Creative Commons provides free tools that let authors, scientists, artists, and educators easily
mark their creative work with the freedoms they want it to carry. You can use CC to change your
copyright terms from ‘All Rights Reserved’ to ‘Some Rights Reserved’” (Creative Commons, 2007).
Currently, over 30 nations now have creative commons licenses although it has only been in place for
four years (Smith & Casserly).

Creative Commons frees materials from automatically applied copyright restrictions by providing free,
easy-to-use, flexible licenses for creators to place on their digital materials that permit the originator to
grant rights as they see fit. See http://creativecommons.org . ccLearn, a subset of Creative Commons,
focuses specifically on open learning and open educational resources. Learn more at
http://learn.creativecommons.org.

There are six major licenses of the Creative Commons:
• Attribution (CC-BY)
• Attribution Share Alike (CC-BY-SA)
• Attribution No Derivatives (CC-BY-ND)
• Attribution Non-Commercial (CC-BY-NC)
• Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA)
• Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives (CC-BY-NC-ND)
See http://creativecommons.org/about/licenses/

A summary video can be found at http://creativecommons.org/about/ that explains CC well.
Other videos, equally good in explain CC, can be found at http://creativecommons.org/videos/

Individuals place Creative Commons licenses on individual items. Thus, there is no fool-proof way to
search all items with some type of CC release on them. However, there are some good resources to gets
you started:
• http://search.creativecommons.org/
• http://wiki.creativecommons.org/Content_Curators

CCLEARN

A development stemming from Creative Commons is ccLearn, which was launched in July of
2007, focused specifically on open learning and open educational resources. It emphasizes diminishing
legal, technical, and social barriers. A primary goal of ccLearn is to build a comprehensive directory of
open educational resources with the assistance of Google with encourages their discovery and
subsequent use (Atkins et al., 2007; Bissell, 2007; Brantley, 2007). Learn more about ccLearn and the
Open Education Community at http://learn.creativecommons.org/

A good place to find educational resources that are creative commons released, visit one of
the below resources:
• http://discovered.creativecommons.org/search/
• http://www.ocwfinder.com/

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• http://www.oerrecommender.org/

“Among many other forms, one form of rampant lawlessness on the Internet consists of copyright
infringement, that is, the unauthorized copying and distribution of material created and owned by others.
Given the scope of the problem, a number of movements to mitigate copyright infringement on the
Internet have begun. One such movement involves the use of digital tools and legal action to prohibit
copyright infringement. Another movement, copyleft, seeks to build a richer public domain and change the
assignment of rights from the automatic "all rights reserved" to a more egalitarian version dubbed "some
rights reserved." At the forefront of this second movement is Creative Commons, a web-based intellectual
property sharing schema developed by a consortium headed by Professor Lawrence Lessig of Stanford
Law School” (Broussard, 2009)

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PRIVACY, DATA PROTECTION AND FREEDOM OF INFORMATION

In considering privacy, data protection, and freedom of information laws, we need to consider normative
and ethical issues as well as legal ones.

PRIVACY

Privacy is something we all seem to want in some cases and all seem to be willing to give up in others.
“Privacy is an important, but illusive concept in law. The right to privacy is acknowledged in several broad-
based international agreements. Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 17 of
the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights both state that, ‘No one shall be
subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon
his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or
attacks’” (Stratford & Stratford, 1998).

Stratford and Stratford note, “The term “privacy” does not appear in the U.S. Constitution or the Bill of
Rights. However, the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled in favor of various privacy interests-deriving the right
to privacy from the First, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Ninth, and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution”
(1998).

As stated by the Global Network Initiative:

Privacy: Privacy is defined using Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
and Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR):

UDHR: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home
or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right
to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

ICCPR: 1. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy,
family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his honour and reputation. 2.
Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

The Global Network Initiative notes, ““Privacy is a human right and guarantor of human dignity.
Privacy is important to maintaining personal security, protecting identity and promoting freedom of
expression in the digital age.

Everyone should be free from illegal or arbitrary interference with the right to privacy and should
have the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

The right to privacy should not be restricted by governments, except in narrowly defined
circumstances based on internationally recognized laws and standards. These restrictions should
be consistent with international human rights laws and standards, the rule of law and be
necessary and proportionate for the relevant purpose”
(2009).

“The Privacy Act (PL 93-579) is a companion to and extension of the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)
of 1966. FOIA was primarily intended to provide access to government information. It did exempt the
disclosure of personnel and medical files that would constitute “a clearly unwarranted invasion of personal
privacy” [12]. This provision was initially used to deny access to people requesting their own records. So
the Privacy Act was also adopted both to protect personal information in federal databases and to provide
individuals with certain rights over information contained in those databases. The act has been
characterized as “the centerpiece of U.S. privacy law affecting government record-keeping” [13]. The act
was developed explicitly to address the problems posed by electronic technologies and personal records
systems and covers the vast majority of personal records systems maintained by the federal government.
The act set forth some basic principles of “fair information practice,” and provided individuals with the right

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of access to information about themselves and the right to challenge the contents of records. It requires
that personal information may only be disclosed with the individual’s consent or for purposes announced
in advance. The act also requires federal agencies to publish an annual list of systems maintained by the
agency that contain personal information” (Statford & Stratford, 1998).

Statford and Stratford continue, “The Computer Security Act of 1987 (PL 100-235) also deals with
personal information in federal record systems. It protects the security of sensitive personal information in
federal computer systems. The act establishes government wide standards for computer security and
assigns responsibility for those standards to the National Institute of Standards. The law also requires
federal agencies to identify systems containing sensitive personal information and to develop security
plans for those systems” (1998).

As JISC Legal notes, “Many web 2.0 technologies place users at a point where submission of personal
data is necessary to use the tool. This brings with it risks concerning the privacy and personal data of
individuals” (JISC Legal, 2008b). This causes a number of data protection and freedom of information
issues. In essence, “Data protection law allows individuals to control the collection, use and transfer of
personal information about them. There may be situations where the setting up of student accounts by
staff on externally Web 2.0 sites is a transfer of personal data, which must be done in compliance with the
relevant legislation” (JISC Legal, 2008a).

DATA PROTECTION

The Federal Trade Commission is educating consumers and businesses about the importance of
personal information privacy, including the security of personal information. Under the FTC Act, the
Commission guards against unfairness and deception by enforcing companies' privacy promises about
how they collect, use and secure consumers' personal information. Under the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act,
the Commission has implemented rules concerning financial privacy notices and the administrative,
technical and physical safeguarding of personal information, and it aggressively enforces against
pretexting (Federal Trade Commission).

Some questions to ask ourselves:
• What records does the activity generate for which institutions are responsible?
• Do they contain data that carry obligations of confidentiality, limitations on use or disclosure,
requirements for ready access/availability?
• How and where are they maintained?
• Can materials be accessed when needed for course and institutional purposes?
• What do hosting sites do with the data created by course participants?
• When are you or your students conducting human subjects research? (Cate, 2008).

U.S. SAFE WEB ACT OF 2006

Congress approved S. 1608, the “Undertaking Spam, Spyware, And Fraud Enforcement with Enforcers
beyond Borders Act of 2006,” (the US SAFE WEB Act of 2006) on December 9, 2006. The US Safe Web
Act amends the Federal Trade Commission Act (FTCA) and improves the Federal Trade Commission
(FTC)’s ability to protect consumers from international fraud by: (1) improving the FTC’s ability to gather
information and coordinate investigation efforts with foreign counterparts; and (2) enhance the FTC’s
ability to obtain monetary consumer redress in cases involving spam, spyware, and Internet fraud and
deception (Brownlee, 2006).

“Where departments process the sensitive personal data, for example, collect information or details
regarding a persons ethnic origin or religious beliefs, sex life etc in order for them to use a Web 2.0 tool,
explicit consent from the users should be obtained prior to processing any sensitive personal data.
Processing of data for marketing and advertising purposes is one other risk which departments need to
be aware of. Such a risk could arise in situations where the personal data collected for or during Web 2.0
use is used for purposes of advertising or marketing. It should be understood here that users have the

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right to object to this and therefore they should be given the option to opt out of being exposed to such
marketing or advertising material” (JISC, 2008).


Web 2.0 service organizers must consider the data protection aspects of their activity, and
in particular, whether it involves the transfer of personal data outwith the institution.
Personal data is any information which could be used to identify a particular person.

Web 2.0 service organizers must obtain the [written] permission of the institutional data protection
officer before any transfer of personal data [outside the EEA]. [The institution] does not permit the
transfer of personal data to external Web 2.0 services.

Web 2.0 service organizers may only use a technology which requires users to submit personal
data if such use is optional.

Where a Web 2.0 service requires the transfer of personal data (e.g. for account set-up) this must
be left to each user to accomplish where possible. The transfer of personal data by the Web 2.0
service organiser must only be done with the prior written permission of [job title].

Web 2.0 organizers should consider whether the use of the service will hinder compliance with
the duties imposed on the institution by Freedom of Information legislation. (JISC Legal, 2008a)

It should be noted that the United States does not treat personal data privacy in the same manner as
some other countries. “Where the U.S. approach has been to provide specific and narrowly applicable
legislation, in Europe there are unified supra-national policies for the region. Most countries have
implemented these policies with omnibus legislation. The European legislation outlines a set of rights and
principle for the treatment of personal data, without regard to whether the data is held in the public or
private sector. In the United States, the legal tradition is much more concerned with regulating data
collected by the federal government" (Stratford & Stratford, 1998).”

SCENARIO


At [ARU] there was a concern about the open environment in Second Life where it is easy for avatars
(other than the core team on the course) to wander in and disrupt the class. In [LSBU], there is a mix of
open and closed spaces. A space where academic work was available was open to the general public in
order to give the students’ work greater exposure, as were students’ blogs. On the social network
however, a closed group was used in order to ensure the privacy of students’ profiles and postings from
educators.

15


ACCESSIBILITY

Remember, we must provide reasonable accommodations to otherwise qualified students with
disabilities. On the other hand, we are not required to alter the fundamental requirements of a course or
program (Cate, 2009).

REHABILITATION ACT – U.S. SECTION 508

In 1998, Congress amended the Rehabilitation Act to require Federal agencies to make their electronic
and information technology accessible to people with disabilities. The law applies to all Federal agencies
when they develop, procure, maintain, or use electronic and information technology. Under Section 508
(29 U.S.C. ‘794d), agencies must give disabled employees and members of the public access to
information that is comparable to the access available to others.

As the law states, “Section 508 requires that when Federal agencies develop, procure, maintain, or use
electronic and information technology, Federal employees with disabilities have access to and use of
information and data that is comparable to the access and use by Federal employees who are not
individuals with disabilities, unless an undue burden would be imposed on the agency. Section 508 also
requires that individuals with disabilities, who are members of the public seeking information or services
from a Federal agency, have access to and use of information and data that is comparable to that
provided to the public who are not individuals with disabilities, unless an undue burden would be imposed
on the agency” (Section 508).

AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT

Signed into law in 1990:

“The ADA prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in employment, State and local
government, public accommodations, commercial facilities, transportation, and
telecommunications. It also applies to the United States Congress.

To be protected by the ADA, one must have a disability or have a relationship or association with
an individual with a disability. An individual with a disability is defined by the ADA as a person
who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities,
a person who has a history or record of such an impairment, or a person who is perceived by
others as having such an impairment. The ADA does not specifically name all of the impairments
that are covered” (U.S. Department of Justice, 2009).

TELECOMMUNICATIONS ACT – SECTION 255

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has rules requiring telecommunications manufacturers
and service providers to make their products and services accessible to people with disabilities, if readily
achievable.

Section 255 and Section 251(a)(2) of the Communications Act of 1934, as amended by the
Telecommunications Act of 1996, require manufacturers of telecommunications equipment and providers
of telecommunications services to ensure that such equipment and services are accessible to and usable
by persons with disabilities, if readily achievable. These amendments ensure that people with disabilities
will have access to a broad range of products and services such as telephones, cell phones, pagers, call-
waiting, and operator services, that were often inaccessible to many users with disabilities” (U.S.
Department of Justice, 2009).

Risks associated with inaccessible content:
• Potential breach of obligations under the DDA causing disadvantage to disabled students
• Failure to meet duty to make “reasonable adjustment” if use inaccessible Web 2.0 functions
(JISC Legal, 2008b)

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The Web 2.0 service organizer must consult with [the institutional accessibility officer] prior to use
of a particular Web 2.0 technology, and must implement any recommendations of [the officer]
pertaining to the use of the technology.

[The institution] only permits the use of Web 2.0 technologies which have the prior approval of
[the university’s accessibility service] as complying with general accessibility standards.

The Web 2.0 service organizer must consider the accessibility issues inherent in the use
of that technology, and consider, where appropriate, what equivalent learning experience
could be offered to users unable to use the Web 2.0 technology.

The Web 2.0 service organiser must include the following statement in instructions given to users
prior to the use of the technology: “The use of [this Web 2.0 technology] has been adopted to
enhance your learning experience. If you have any issue relating to your specific access needs,
please contact [job title] (JISC Legal, 2008a)

SCENARIO

iTunesU, Apples’ was not accessible to the blind until September of 2008. “John Olivera of the
Massachusetts Commission for the Blind said the state approached Apple for help in making the wealth
of educational material in iTunes U available to blind students” (McLean, 2008).

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LIABILITY

There are three types of liability issue which should be taken into account in relation to an institution’s use
of Web 2.0 technologies:

1. Contract based liability due to breach of contract
2. Negligence based liability due to failure to meet the required standard of care
3. Specific liabilities such as for defamatory or obscene content

HARASSMENT AND DEFAMATION

Some examples of potential liability may include, but is not limited to, harassment, defamation, and other
online nastiness. We, as institutions, have student codes of conduct and employee/faculty codes of
conduct. These apply to social media worlds. Harassment, defamation and other online nastiness
doesn’t require new rules (legal or policy issues), but instead now we can just engage in so much more
communication there is more scope and potential for conflict (Cate, 2009).

When you are using public sites there are some interesting twists. The terms of use of a site may limit
speech more than the institution does or the first amendment does. The public site could actually remove
participants for speech that institutions of higher education would or must permit (Cate, 2009).

Questions to ask ourselves:

• What do you when a third party is harassing a student in the midst of work they are doing within a
2.0 technology?
• What responsibilities do we have to protect student a student in that environment? (Cate, 2009)


[The institution] requires all Web 2.0 technology organizers to note an appraisal of risk in
respect to failure to meet contractual obligations, failure to take reasonable precautions to
prevent loss or damage, or failure to comply with legal duties.

[The institution] requires all Web 2.0 technology organizers to consult with [job title] prior to use of
such services, in order to consider the legal risks to which the institution might be exposed by
such activity (JISC Legal, 2008a)

SCENARIO


Scenario 1: When students are expected to use in-house services for university work, validation of
‘appropriate use’ is relatively easy. However, when publicly available social networking sites can also be
used, staff cannot ask a user to leave a computer in the computing lab just because they are using
Facebook or Flickr since this may now be a legitimate activity.In [SC], the educator was concerned about
the availability of computers if more and more courses adopted digital technologies.

Scenario 2: When students produce content, which is displayed in a public or educational space, there is
the possibility that the content (eg image, text, film) may be inappropriate. In [SC], the educator
expressed concerns about how any inappropriate content or photographs by students on Flickr could
potentially damage the reputation of the college and, since the college did not have any policies, the
system was working on the basis of trust on students. In [OU2], the students were reminded that the
university’s computing code of conduct should be followed for interacting in the forums and in the wiki. In
[ARU], they ensured that students signed a user agreement acknowledging they were still bound by the
JANET regulations for educational Internet use. In [UW], the educators worked with their university web

18


manager to create an acceptable use policy. Building the definition of what is or is not acceptable into the
activity itself is one approach taken to address this issue. At [ARU], students producing films in Second
Life were advised that their films must adhere to the Parental Guidance film classification. Another
approach is to discuss the issue of what may or may not be appropriate, and leave it to students to
exercise appropriate judgment ([NC], [OU1]). In [OU1], students were advised that they needed to be
careful when publishing photos of children.

Scenario 3: Several institutions used software that had a facility for the community itself to ‘police’ the
content, and to report inappropriate usage. At [UW], the ability for the Elgg based social network to be
monitored by the users was perceived as a benefit. In [OU1], the course team took the decision to build a
‘report abuse’ button, which users could use to identify inappropriate images or comments in OpenStudio.
This was used occasionally, but ‘in the cases where it was used the images were found not be
inappropriate in the context of the course. Actively moderating images with a course of this scale would
have been too difficult.’

Scenario 4: In [OU1], some students found it difficult to provide constructive feedback and there have
been occasional arguments (flames) in the forums (also, see [OU5]). To counter this small problem more
guidance about positive commenting has been added to the course material in [OU1] and moderators
have been advised on how to help students to be constructive (Minocha, 2009).

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RELIANCE ON AN EXTERNALLY PROVIDED SERVICE

It may also be important for an institution to ascertain what level of service is provided by an externally-
hosted Web 2.0 technology. This is particularly true where the use of the technology would provide a
large or important part of the learning experience, or where the technology is used to mediate formal
assessment in some manner.

Dr Chris Adie, at the University of Edinburgh, suggested the following to be examined in relation to the
assurance of service that an institution might require:

1. “The Security of the Service Provider”
For how long can the external Web 2.0 service provider be expected to be around?
2. “Confidentiality”
To what extent does the service provider respect the protection of information where appropriate
(such as personal data, sensitive information about the institution’s business, or confidential
information – in relation to a patentable invention, for example).
3. “Ownership of Data”
To what extent (if any) does the Web 2.0 service provider claim ownership of submissions and
contributions?
4. “Security of Data”
In addition to the matters noted under confidentiality above, there is the question of the safety of
the data – both in terms of back-up, and in terms of unauthorised access.
5. “Performance”
To what extent does the service provider agree to a particular standard of performance, and is
there any possible remedy if that standard isn’t met?
6. “Reliability”
To what extent is the service stable and resilient? How often will it not be available?
7. “Support”
How good are the reference sources of help, and the interactive assistance (such as a
helpdesk)?
8. “Single Sign-On”
To what extent can use of the Web 2.0 service be included under the standard institutional sign-
on?
9. “Lock-in”
To what extent legally (due to contractual obligations) and technically (due to compatibility) would
the institution be tied-in to a particular technology?
10. “Longevity”
What is the service provider’s policy on maintaining unused accounts and data?
11. “Functional Stability”
To what extent is the provision of the service likely to change over time? (Adie, 2007)

CONTRACTING AUTHORITY

Individuals can accept any terms of use. However, we are within an institution which may have
agreements within which we need to operate. We are doing things in the service of teaching and
learning. There are problems with what institutions (as opposed to individuals) may accept.


• What are terms of jurisdiction?
• Whose law applies?
• What authority does faculty have in contracting with third parties?
• If individual faculty sign for themselves and dispute arises from use, is the institution liable and
bound by the agreement?
• If not, can it defend/indemnify faculty member? (Cate, 2009)

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JURISDICTION, DISPUTE RESOLUTION, CHOICE OF LAW AND VENUE

As users we need to pay attention to any agreements between third party sites and users in regard to
jurisdiction, dispute resolution, and similar. Often third-party sites will specify dispute resolution methods
within their terms of service or similar documentation. In using their services we agree to these contracts
as individuals and, in some cases perhaps, as institutions. Basically, these sites, and you by agreeing to
use them, agree to a process they have in place, such a binding arbitration that occurs in a particular
state (Cate, 2009).

Here is an example:

Facebook: “You will resolve any claim, cause of action or dispute ("claim") you have with us arising out of
or relating to this Statement or Facebook exclusively in a state or federal court located in Santa Clara
County. The laws of the State of California will govern this Statement, as well as any claim that might
arise between you and us, without regard to conflict of law provisions. You agree to submit to the
personal jurisdiction of the courts located in Santa Clara County, California for the purpose of litigating all
such claims.”


Before adopting the use of an externally-provided Web 2.0 service, the organizer shall
appraise the stability and security of that service, the loss, damage and/or disruption that
would be caused by failure of the service, and the corresponding benefit that using the
service brings.

Web 2.0 technology organizers shall, upon becoming aware of potential liability attaching to the
institution, apply the institution’s Notice and Takedown Procedure as detailed at [location].

Web 2.0 technology organizers shall, upon becoming aware of potential liability attaching to the
institution, remove the relevant item as soon as possible (or will apply to have the item removed
as soon as possible), and will inform [job title] immediately of the circumstances (JISC Legal,
2008a)

SCENARIO


Scenario 1: In [OU1], the Open Studio tool allows students to upload and share photographs with their
fellow students using a standard web browser. The tool is only available to students registered on the
course and to authorized staff members. OpenStudio was developed by the OU after the course team’s
original plans of integrating the university’s authentication system with Flickr had to be shelved. The main
concerns were that the university could not control the public facility or integrate it sufficiently into the
assessment system (eg ‘They couldn’t enforce cut-off dates – a student would have been free to change
their submitted photos after the ECA [End of Course Assessment] submission date’). In [SC], the
educator identified a similar concern that the deadlines cannot be specified within Flickr. In [US],
concerns were expressed about the use of systems in the public domain as such systems cannot be
administered and controlled centrally.

Scenario 2: Some case studies actually experienced changes in the software they were using over the
duration of their projects ([BCU1] and [NC] had to adapt to a new version of PBwiki). In [LSBU], they
found that the Lulu interface improved over the course of the module, while [ARU] experienced a number
of technical problems resulting from upgrades to Second Life, which meant that Second Life could no
longer be used on all the university computers.

Scenario 3: In [LSBU], one student’s account on Facebook was terminated, resulting in the loss of her

21


academic work on Facebook. Project teams found that they could not control the registration of users. As
a result, educators may not able to provide support to students who have lost their password or forgotten
their user id. For example, in [SC] some Flickr user ids were abandoned because of this. The separate
identity management within Ning makes institutional adoption problematic [LU]. In future, projects may be
able to look to initiatives such as OpenID () to provide some level of commonality for account
management (Minocha, 2009).

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OVERVIEW OF SOCIAL MEDIA TOOLS AND THEIR RELATED POLICIES

Whereas the original Web was more of a one-way medium with content going from the publisher to the
reader, Social media is a bi-directional medium where people interact with each other and/or with
the content. Basically, it is a change from an environment with a few content authors and many readers
to one in which users generate, re-purpose, and consume shared content. As the Consortium for School
Networking (CoSN) notes, “Social media is defined as an online application that uses the World Wide
Web (www) as a platform and allows for participatory involvement, collaboration, and interactions among
users. Social media is also characterized by the creation and sharing of intellectual and social resources
by end users” (2009).

Examples of Social media applications include items such as web logs or blogs; online diaries that allow
the originator and readers to state ideas and react; wikis, which are topical collections of information that
can be edited by multiple individuals within a group; social networking sites where users can create
personalized pages of information and interact with others ; or file sharing sites where users can share
images, audio, video and more. In addition to these, there are services that allow users to participate in
various group activities and to complete, individually or collaboratively, a variety of tasks such as
document creation and editing that would previously have relied upon software on a local computer
(CoSN, 2009; Albion, 2008).

Social media applications like online communities, blogs, and wikis should not be thought of as just a
passing fad or idle socializing, but as an activity that has embedded itself into the way work gets done
(Demski, 2009). As Albion notes in Social media in Teacher Education, “Social media represents a more
participative and potentially paradigm-changing environment for building and sharing knowledge. Some
educators have begun to apply these tools in classrooms but, as their use in society expands, there will
be expectations for their wider application in schools.” (2008). He continues, “As Social media develops,
it will not be possible for educators at any level to ignore it. Society, especially employers, will expect
education to develop essential skills with the new tools, and learners already familiar with the tools will
expect to be able to apply their knowledge and skills while learning” (Albion, 2008).

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SOCIAL BOOKMARKING (FOLKSONOMY)

Social bookmarking sites work to build communities of users based on their decision to link to,
cite, and otherwise reference specific websites, journals, and other resources. It is a method for
Internet users to store, organize, search, and manage bookmarks of web pages on the Internet with the
help of metadata, typically in the form of tags that collectively and/or collaboratively become a
folksonomy. Folksonomy is also called social tagging and is the process by which many users add
metadata in the form of keywords to shared content (Wikipedia). Social bookmarking sites include, but
are not limited to Delicious, Diigo, Stumbleupon, Citeulike, Sitemark, and Trailfire.

Visit http://www.ebizmba.com/articles/social-bookmarking to see the top 20 most popular social
bookmarking Websites for July 2009.

• Delicious: http://delicious.com/
• Diigo: http://www.diigo.com/
• Citeulike: http://www.citeulike.org/
• Sitemark: http://www.sitemark.com/
• Trailfire: http://www.trailfire.com/

Here are some ideas of how social bookmarking could be helpful in education:
• Create a set of resources that can be accessed on any computer connected to the Internet
• Conduct research and share that research with your peers
• Track author and book updates
• Groups of students doing a classroom project sharing their bookmarks, a teacher subscribed to
their rss feed to see the direction of their research.
• Post research and information bookmarks. All members continuously benefit from this shared
resource.
• Rate and review bookmarks to help other students to decide on usefulness of resources
• Setup a group tag in order to share educational resources
• Unintended learning through the discovery of resources and information shared by others through
their bookmarks
• Share links to current news items that relate to classroom discussions (D'Souza, 2006)

As Christine Greenhow, the founding chair of the Social Networks Research Collaborative at the
University of Minnesota notes, "Several tools, similar to Delicious, allow educators and learners to
assemble, annotate, recommend, and share resources, such as books, journal articles, websites, and
contacts. Social bibliography sites—also called 'social bookmarking' sites—such as Citeulike and Diigo
not only allow students to better document their trajectory on the Web, but also to archive and comment
on resources they collect along the way. Social bibliography sites are 'social' in that they allow users to
browse other users' online bibliographies and interact with them" (2009).

POLICIES RELATING TO SOCIAL BOOKMARKING

Again, it is good for users of third-party services to be aware of the services providers policies and
standards. Let us consider for a moment some of the policies surrounding use of del.icio.us:

• Delicious reserves the right to terminate your license to use Delicious at any time and for any
reason or to charge for commercial usage in the future.
• In accessing Delicious or following links to third-party websites you may be exposed to content
that you consider offensive or inappropriate. You agree that your only recourse is to stop using
Delicious.
• Delicious is explicitly not responsible for the manner or circumstances by which third parties
access or use public content and is under no obligation to disable or otherwise restrict this
access.
• Delicious provides the site and services ‘as is’ and without any warranty or condition, express,
implied, or statutory. Delicious specifically disclaims any implied warranties of merchantability,

24


fitness for a particular purpose, non-infringement, information accuracy, integration,
interoperability, or quiet enjoyment. Some states do not allow the disclaimer of implied warranties,
so the foregoing disclaimer may not apply to you.
• You understand and agree that you use Delicious at your own discretion and risk and that you will
be solely responsible for any damages that arise from such use. Under no circumstances shall
delicious or its affiliates be liable for any direct, indirect, special, incidental, consequential or
punitive damages of any kind, or any other damages whatsoever (however arising, including by
negligence), including without limitation, damages related to use, misuse, reliance on, inability to
use and interruption, suspension, or termination of the site or services, damages incurred through
any links provided on the site and the nonperformance thereof and damages resulting from loss
of use, sales, data, goodwill or profits, whether or not delicious has been advised of such
possibility. Your only right with respect to any dissatisfaction with delicious shall be to terminate
use of delicious. Some states do not allow the exclusion of liability for incidental or consequential
damages, so the above exclusions may not apply to you.

SCENARIO


Scenario 1: In [SU], the students were asked to annotate their entries onto a social bookmarking website
with their names. Some of the students were not willing to do this, which meant that some entries were
anonymous. This had implications for checking a student’s involvement and progress with the course.

Scenario 2: In [OU4], the educator did express concerns about the resources (bookmarks) and how she
would lose them if Delicious ceased to exist (Minocha, 2009).

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SOCIAL NETWORKING AND PROFILES

As Wikipedia notes, "A social network service focuses on building online communities of people who
share interests and/or activities, or who are interested in exploring the interests and activities of
others. Most social network services are web based and provide a variety of ways for users to interact,
such as e-mail and instant messaging services.” It includes sites such as Facebook and MySpace that
are open for anyone to subscribe to, or can be more limited/controlled sites such as Ning, Lymabean, or
Saywire.
• Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/
• MySpace: http://www.myspace.com/
• Ning: http://www.ning.com/
• Lymabean: http://www.lymabean.com/
• Saywire: http://www.saywire.com/

POLICIES RELATING TO SOCIAL NETWORKING AND PROFILES

It is advised that any individual using social networking sites review the sites policies. Below are
segments of the Facebook policies obtained from http://www.facebook.com/terms.php?ref=pf

Facebook follows two core principles:
1. You should have control over your personal information.
2. You should have access to the information others want to share.

Sharing Your Content and Information: You own all of the content and information you post on Facebook,
and you can control how it is shared through your privacy and application settings.

Protecting other peoples rights: You will not post content or take any action on Facebook that infringes or
violates someone else's rights or otherwise violates the law. We can remove any content or information
you post on Facebook if we believe that it violates this Statement.

Disputes: You will resolve any claim, cause of action or dispute ("claim") you have with us arising out of or
relating to this Statement or Facebook exclusively in a state or federal court located in Santa Clara
County. The laws of the State of California will govern this Statement, as well as any claim that might
arise between you and us, without regard to conflict of law provisions. You agree to submit to the
personal jurisdiction of the courts located in Santa Clara County, California for the purpose of litigating all
such claims.

Facebook has detailed statements regarding:
1. Privacy
2. Sharing your content and infomormation
3. Safety
4. Registration and account security
5. Protecting other people's rights
6. Mobile
7. Payments
8. Special Provisions Applicable to Share Links
9. Special Provisions Applicable to Developers/Operators of Applications and Websites
10. About Advertisements on Facebook
11. Special Provisions Applicable to Advertisers
12. Special Provisions Applicable to Pages
13. Amendments
14. Termination
15. Disputes
16. Special Provisions Applicable to Users Outside the United States
17. Definitions
18. Other

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QUESTIONS TO ASK OURSELVES

- What issues arise if a faculty in a traditional class chooses to put all of his/her supplemental
course materials on Facebook (or a similar platform)?
- What if the instructor requires a Facebook account to view the information?
- What if the instructor does not require a Facebook account to view the information?

SCENARIO


Scenario 1: There was some concern in several institutions among students and educators that the use of
social software blurred boundaries between personal and academic life. For example, in [BCU2], the
students admitted that the Facebook group set up for pre-induction was useful but they did not want
university interactions in Facebook to continue once they had joined the university. In contrast, in [ARU]
and in [LSBU], the educators were allowed access to their students’ profiles on Facebook but in [UM],
some students were hesitant about interacting with their educators on Facebook as they perceived
Facebook as a social space rather than an academic space.

Scenario 2: In [BCU2], where the target users had not yet started their studies at the university, staff
expressed concern that an open Facebook group may potentially allow other universities access to their
students, and that this may impact on recruitment. A different kind of concern was raised in [SC], where
the educator was concerned about how misbehaviour of even one student in the group (which is on
Flickr) could potentially jeopardise the reputation of the college, but he also noted that a ‘lot of trust’ and
support from the college has helped to ease such concerns.

Scenario 3: Educators and organisations face the dilemmas about whether, and to what extent
communications in social networking sites should be moderated (eg [RH]), and what, if any, interventions
should be undertaken. Institutions face the dilemma of policing the content versus leaving the discussions
to take their own course (and thus to encourage participation, especially when the social software
initiative has been set up to collect requirements and opinions [RH]. (Minocha, 2009).

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BLOGS

As Wikipedia notes, "A blog (a contraction of the term "weblog") is a type of website, usually maintained
by an individual with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or other material such
as graphics or video. Often end-users can respond directly, and publically, to Blog postings.
Entries are commonly displayed in reverse-chronological order." Students can use blogs to publish their
own writings, discuss group assignments, peer review each other’s work, collaborate on projects and
manage their digital portfolios (Churchill 2009). Popular blogs include Blogger and Wordpress to name a
few.

According to a study of blog uses that was conducted in a class of postgraduate students over the period
of one semester:

“Briefly, data from the questionnaire suggests that the participating students from the group under
study agreed that blogging facilitated and contributed to their learning and that due to the use of
blogs the facilitator appeared to be more involved in their learning. Further, the students
appeared to agree that the facilitator's blogging activity encouraged them to blog. Aspects of
blogging that contributed most to the students' learning were accessing and reading blogs of
others, both those of other students and the facilitator, receiving comments and previewing
completed tasks of students, and reading personal feedback. When asked during the interviews
to indicate what they liked most about blogging, the participating students specified viewing the
work of others (eg, in students' terms to 'learn new things from others' perspectives' or 'see
progress of others') and receiving comments on their work. In relation to reasons for blogging, it
appeared that tasks that required them to use blogs to present final outcomes were of key
importance …

This study demonstrated that blogs can be effective educational technology and useful blog-
based activities for learning are: (1) reading blogs of others, (2) receiving comments and (3)
previewing tasks of others and reading feedback received in relation to these. Encouragement for
students to blog were: (1) regular learning tasks which require students to present outcomes in
their blogs, (2) blogs being an assessment requirement and (3) regular blogging of a teacher.
Through blogs, a teacher can create an ambience in which students feel themselves to be
important parts of the classroom community and that their needs and opinions are recognized
and addressed.

In order to maximize opportunities, a blog system can be expanded through other Social media
applications. RSS technology might be useful in helping teachers and students to manage
access to information. Folksonomy or user tagging can also be useful. Students and teachers can
tag their own posts and posts of others and these tags could provide meta-information about the
content of the posts. Social media digital repositories (such as Youtube, Flickr or Slideshare) can
also be useful additions to the blogsphere. Teachers and students can deposit resources in these
repositories and display them in their blogs. Developers of new generations of learning managing
systems are beginning to explore ways of integrating Social media ideas in order to provide
systems that leverage technological developments” (Churchill, 2009).

View full report at http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/121521504/HTMLSTART.

• Blogger/Blogspot: http://www.blogger.com/
• Wordpress: http://www.wordpress.com/

POLICIES RELATING TO BLOGS

"Being a medium for expression of thoughts, blogs constitute one of the classic Web 2.0 technologies that
could create liability for inaccurate, defamatory and obscene content" (JISC, 2008b).

Risks associated with defamatory or obscene content include:

28


• Blog contributors publishing defamatory materials could make institution liable by association
• Inadequate “notice and take down” procedures for offending material
• Potential damage to institutional reputation (JISC, 2008b).

SCENARIOS


Students were working in schools, and were told not to use of the names of the schools, pupils or
teachers in their blog entries. However some students did not follow this guidance. The blog was private,
however if it had been open to the public domain this could have had serious implications for the
university. In [UW], one student raised a personal issue related to health online. Staff felt that it was a
private issue and was not appropriate for discussion in a public place and removed the post. In [UM]
students were advised about online privacy and safety guidelines. The initiative was branded as a
university network (even when it was hosted on Ning, an external social networking framework) to
emphasize that users will be bound by university regulations.

29


OPEN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

Open educational resources are growing in prevalence in the United States as well as globally and
include OpenCourseWare (OCW) as well as other learning initiatives. Institutions involved in OCW
initiatives in the United States included founder Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Johns
Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Carnegie Mellon, Tufts University, University of California—
Irvine, University of Norte Dame, and Utah State University among others nationally and globally (OCW
Consortium, 2009; OCW Finder, 2007). There are other initiatives as well that combine resources from
various institutions such as, Connexions, Multimedia Educational Resource for Learning and Online
Teaching (Merlot), or Academic Earth. Other resources aimed at opening access to books and other print
materials such as the Internet Archive Open Content Alliance (OCA) are also available. A good place to
start for open educational resources is http://discovered.creativecommons.org/search/.

The open educational resources movement consists of freely accessible electronic access to course
materials, but it also involves other aspects such as open access to books and library materials,
and access to modules of educational information instead of complete courses. It may also include
educational communication tools or implementation resources as well (International Institute for
Education and Planning, 2005). Essentially, it is teaching, learning, and research resources, content or
otherwise, which reside in the public domain or have been released under an intellectual-property license
that permits their free use or repurposing by others. This may include learning content, tools such as
software, or implementation resources such as methods or principles (Smith & Casserly, 2006; Stover,
2005; Trenin, 2007). Their intention, overall, is to foster learning and the acquisition of competencies in
both teachers and learners (Open eLearning, 2007).

• DiscoverEd: http://discovered.creativecommons.org/search/
• OER Recommender: http://oerrecommender.org/
• OCW Finder: http://www.ocwfinder.com/
• Academic Earth: http://academicearth.org/
• Connexions: http://cnx.org/
• Merlot: http://www.merlot.org/
• Internet Archive: http://www.archive.org/

POLICIES RELATING TO OPEN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

Using open educational resources for learning purposes likely carries few restrictions, however, using
these materials for development or enhancement of educational materials to be used by others or
presented, in some manner, as your own will run into copyright restrictions as identified by the authors of
the content. It is advised that users with the latter intent insure that the content has proper Creative
Commons attribution for their needs. [See creative commons segment of this document].

For faculty or others desiring to post their own materials on to open educational resource sites, they
should ensure there are not any ownership rights issues revolving around the content intended to be
posted. For example, in some cases it may not be clear if content is ‘owned’ by the institution or the
individual, particularly if the individual was paid for or during creation of the content.

30


OPEN ACCESS JOURNALS AND PUBLICATIONS

Although open access journals are not Social media per se, they are relevant when it comes to topics
such as Digital Repositories or Self-Archiving Systems. Open access journals are those that are
scholarly journals publicly available at no cost to the end user. A full list of open access journals can
be found at the directory of open access journals at the Directory of Open Access Journals
(http://www.doaj.org/).

[Talk about things like BEPress and Mendeley and the like]

In some cases you simply post your work and can share it publically and obtain commentary on it , such
as in digital repositories such as Mendeley or MIT’s DSpace. In some cases you may do this through a
person or entity or you might use a self-archiving site.
• Directory of Open Access Journals: http://www.doaj.org/
• Mendeley: http://www.mendeley.com/
• DSpace: http://dspace.mit.edu/
• SelectedWorks: http://works.bepress.com/

POLICIES RELATING TO OPEN ACCESS JOURNALS AND PUBLICATIONS

Using open access journals and publications for learning purposes likely carries few restrictions, however,
using these materials for development or enhancement of educational materials to be used by others or
presented, in some manner, as your own will run into copyright restrictions as identified by the authors of
the content. It is advised that users with the latter intent insure that the content has proper Creative
Commons attribution for their needs. [See creative commons segment of this document].

Additionally, if authors of published works are considering placing their materials on open access sites
such as Selected Works, they need to ensure that the journal or place of publication does not retain
copyrights that do not permit this.

31


COLLABORATIVE AND INTERACTIVE ENVIRONMENTS, INCLUDING WIKIS

A collaborative and/or interactive environment is just that – the user can interact with the site itself,
with others, and sometimes with the originators themselves. Perhaps the most common type of
collaborative/interactive environment is the wiki.

Some collaborative and interactive environments include: Zunal, Thinkature, Web Conferencing tools
such as Webex, Yugma, gotomeeting, or livemeeting; Instant Messaging such as ICQ, Yahoo
messenger, MSN messenger or AIM; and Virtual Worlds such as Second Life, ConceptShare, Mebeam,
Tokbox,
• Zunal: http://www.zunal.com/
• Thinkature: http://www.thinkature.com/
• Yugma: https://www.yugma.com/
• Gotomeeting: http://www.gotomeeting.com/
• ConceptShare: http://www.conceptshare.com/
• Mebeam: http://www.mebeam.com/
• Tokbox: http://www.tokbox.com/

WIKIPEDIA AND OTHER WIKIS

One very well known collaborative and interactive environment is Wikipedia, and other related Wikis.
As Knobel and Lankshear describe, “A wiki is a collection of webpages whose content is typically
organized around a specific purpose or topic. Content can be collaboratively written, added to,
deleted, and modified by users. Wikis are not like static webpages whose content is controlled by the
website owner or webmaster. They are more like a shared, online writing space supporting embedded
links to other pages internal or external to the wiki. Along with text and hyperlinks, wiki pages may include
embedded images, audio, and video. Many wikis also have a built-in discussion space for each page.
Because wikis are fully searchable they are ideal go-to spaces for accessing useful and current
resources. The best-known example of a wiki is the massively collaborative online encyclopedia
Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org)” (2009).

POLICIES RELATING TO COLLABORATIVE AND INTERACTIVE ENVIRONMENTS

The wiki serves the role of an information resource and as a publishing platform. This could create risks
concerning the legal validity of the information contained in them (JISC Legal, 2008). Additionally,
“Collaborative creations in wikis can involve a multitude of combinations in terms of the creators involved”
(JISC Legal, 2008).

As JISC Notes:

One of the most common IPR issues here is the individual right to authorship and copyright
ownership in content contributed by one person as against the other. A student who contributes
to a common data pool might also wish to claim ownership in the submitted content. It could
however be the case that the submitted content incorporates material that is inseparable and is
created by other members of the team or a faculty member. Considering such risks, it is
imperative that the institution gives due consideration to the development of staff and student
intellectual property rights policies and incorporate provisions on IPR ownership in staff contracts
of employment prior to facilitating Web 2.0 technologies at institutions.

Content contributed by authors might also comprise third-party copyright material or even orphan
works (works in which the rights holder cannot be traced or are unknown). Appropriate copyright
clearance or permissions are necessary to post these materials in the wiki. Where such clearance
or permission is lacking the institution could face the risk of being sued for hosting copyright
infringing content. This could also indirectly affect the proper running of the wiki” (2008).

Risks associated with adding content include:

32


• Copying, adapting and communicating contents without permission
• Adding, removing or altering material without permission
• Inaccurate or misleading content
• Difficulties identifying an author for subsequent changed treatment of content
• Multiplicity of authors could lead to disputes over copyright ownership (JISC Legal, 2008).

SCENARIOS


The use of wikis highlighted students’ concerns about shared production and editing each others’ work
[UH]. In the wiki, the ‘ownership’ of contributions can be unclear, and perceptions of ownership can vary
among group members.

33


DOCUMENT SHARING

Document sharing sites allow you to share and collaborate online. In other sites you can actually co-
edit or co-author documents such as in Google Docs, Slideshare, or 280 Slides.
• Google Docs: http://docs.google.com/
• Slideshare: http://www.slideshare.net/


• Who is the ‘owner’ of the information, particularly if there is more than one editor?
• Who is able to view this document or resource (group, individuals, public) and how?
• Who has the ability to make this document public and how?
• If the information is being put on a third party site, what rights does the third party have regarding
the content?

POLICIES RELATING TO DOCUMENT SHARING

Let’s consider Google Docs. Here are a few snippets from Google’s Terms of Service located at
http://www.google.com/accounts/TOS:

You understand that all information (such as data files, written text, computer software, music, audio files
or other sounds, photographs, videos or other images) which you may have access to as part of, or
through your use of, the Services are the sole responsibility of the person from which such content
originated. All such information is referred to below as the “Content”.

Google reserves the right (but shall have no obligation) to pre-screen, review, flag, filter, modify, refuse or
remove any or all Content from any Service.

You understand that by using the Services you may be exposed to Content that you may find offensive,
indecent or objectionable and that, in this respect, you use the Services at your own risk.

You retain copyright and any other rights you already hold in Content which you submit, post or display
on or through, the Services. By submitting, posting or displaying the content you give Google a perpetual,
irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, and non-exclusive licence to reproduce, adapt, modify, translate,
publish, publicly perform, publicly display and distribute any Content which you submit, post or display on
or through, the Services. This licence is for the sole purpose of enabling Google to display, distribute and
promote the Services and may be revoked for certain Services as defined in the Additional Terms of
those Services.

34


MICROBLOGGING

As Wikipedia notes, “Micro blogging is a form of multimedia blogging that allows users to send brief
text updates or micromedia such as photos or audio clips and publish them, either to be viewed by
anyone or by a restricted group which can be chosen by the user. These messages can be submitted by
a variety of means, including text messaging, instant messaging, email, digital audio or the web.” It
includes tools such as Twitter, Yammer, Plurk, and Jaiku.

Right now UVU has a Yammer account which is restricted to those at UVU. It has over 85 members from
all areas of campus. UVU has even recently been mentioned in an article for its innovative use of
Yammer, “’A number of tech-savvy early adopters latched on first here, naturally, but it has expanded in
the past month or two and has proven extremely beneficial for exchanging ideas across a diverse and
often very segmented campus,’ says Erin Spurgeon, UVU’s communications manager. “This is where
Yammer comes into play. My coworker Vegor Pedersen I think states it best in his blog post, ‘Yes We
Yam.’” (Smith, 2009)

Plugins such as Yammerfox are strongly recommended for following the Yammer discussions.
• Twitter: http://www.twitter.com/
• Yammer: http://www.yammer.com/
• Jiaku: http://www.jaiku.com/

SCENARIO


If the Twitter accounts or blogs are kept private or open to only a few selected users, then there could be
a negative impact on group dynamics (concerns in [PU]) as there will be limited communication.

35


FEEDBACK AND USER REVIEW

A number of sites exist where end users can offer feedback and review. Most are familiar with this type
of capability through sites like Amazon.com or Epinions. However, there are also sites where users can
rate their instructors or even their institutions. Examples of these include Rate My Professors,
Communiversity, Unigo, StuVu, and The University Review.

• RateMyProfessors: http://ratemyprofessors.com/
• Communiversity: http://www.communiversity.com/
• Unigo: http://www.unigo.com/
• StuVu: http://www.stuvu.com/
• The University Review: http://www.theuniversityreview.com/
• Zinch: http://www.zinch.com/

POLICIES RELATING TO FEEDBACK AND USER REVIEW

In the case of user feedback review it is unlikely that an institution would say feedback and review is not
acceptable by those affiliated with the institution. However, it may want to communicate about possible
take-down notices when applicable and will likely want to be familiar with the feedback and user review
sites relating to the institution.

As an example:

Rate my Professor - Posting Guidelines

As a user of RateMyprofessors.com, you agree and accept the terms and conditions of the site. This site
is a resource for students to provide and receive feedback on professor's teaching methods and insight
into the courses. Comments should only be posted by students who have taken a class from the
professor. Please limit one comment per person per course.

The following guidelines are intended to protect all users-students and professors. Please review before
posting on RateMyProfessors.com

DOs:
• Be honest.
• Be objective in your assessment of the professor.
• Limit your comments to the professor's professional abilities. Do not to get personal.
• Proof your comments before submitting. Poor spelling will not cause your rating to be removed;
however, poor spelling may result in your rating being discredited by those who read it.
• Leave off your Name, Initials, Pseudo Name, or any sort of identifying mark when posting.
• Refer to the Rating Categories to help you better elaborate your comments.
• Remember that negative comments that still offer constructive criticism are useful. Comments
that bash a professor on a personal level are not.
• Submit helpful comments that mention professor's ability to teach and/or communicate effectively,
course load, type of course work and course topics.
DO NOTs:
• State something as a fact if it is your opinion.
• Post a rating if you are not a student or have not taken a class from the professor.
• Post ratings for people who do not teach classes at your college or university.
• Input false course or section codes for a class that does not exist.
• Rate a professor more than once for the same class.
• Make references to other comments posted.
• Professors : Do not rate yourselves or your colleagues.

Comments will be deemed inappropriate that are libelous, defamatory, indecent, vulgar or obscene,
pornographic, sexually explicit or sexually suggestive, racially, culturally, or ethnically offensive, harmful,

36

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